Cybersecurity Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cybersecurity - Coursework Example Considering the above two aspects cyber system is believed to be highly vulnerable for attack. Indeed, it is also being believed that cyber security is difficult to accomplish as cyber-attacks regularly overthrow the cyber defense system. The study aims to discuss the intervention of government for improving the cyber security. The objective of the study is to recognize the methods through which government intervene to enhance cyber security. The study also describes certain arguments on the aspect of government intervention (Rosenzweig, 2011). How Can Government Justify Telling Private Industry How To Set Up Or Improve Their Cyber Security? Nowadays, cyber security has become a national authoritative and governmental priority. Improved cyber security assists in protecting people and organizations, certifying the accessibility of critical structures on which the national economy as well as security depends. Therefore, government of any country can help private organizations and industry to set up and improve the aspect of cyber security. Cyber security solutions which assist organizations and industry on governmental and technological instructions can enhance the defensive power of information system. Self-defense provisions in laws have made the network and communication organizations to share information with the government regarding any kind of incident about cyber-attacks (Nojeim, 2010). Socio-Political Reasons In present days, almost every surface of life is related with internet. People and organizations both are at risk to the inexhaustible threats which impact on the networking activities. Hackers can travel thro ugh internet and can be benefitted from lack of security between autonomous network owners. This low coordination among public and private organizations makes internet defenseless, where hackers can easily enter on their network and access private information. Accordingly, it can hamper the confidence of public on organizations. Laws and regulations can be levied by government for improving the security. However, such government intervention is complicated as in reality, internet is a global network and government, businesses and people can be impacted by such governmental interventions in terms of negative market reactions, liability disclosures and undesirable discharge of private information. In every circumstance, the role of government must be prudently demarcated by law, regulation and practice so that public interest is fulfilled without the obligation of heavy burdens (Intelligence and National Security Alliance, 2009). Motivation Government can play an indirect role in fost ering cyber security by motivating organizations through several incentives. Government can provide tax recognitions, research and development supports, procurement control and implementation of prevailing regulations as a part of security motivations for organizations. As it is difficult for government to intervene in the work process of private organizat

IT in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

IT in business - Essay Example Now despite the competitive edge ensured by IT, once every company begins to cut costs and aims at doing so at an increasing rate, they tend to hire different agents to do this task for them. At this point they become dependent on an agent who might be working for their rival firms as well and the means for seeking information advantages itself becomes a strategic disadvantage for the concerned company. 2. Carr rightly diagnoses that the strategic advantage of information is not everlasting for a firm. Even Porter and Miller argue that IT has the power to change all the Porter’s five forces. But three different companies or business organizations like Orkut, Facebook and Twitter, though based upon similar idea do not have the same number of clients. Here one might say that first entrant into a specific segment using information technology might have more advantage over the others. An individual having an account with Orkut might have the same with the other two as well and hen ce identifying a strategic advantage at this point is almost impossible unless based on time of entry. 2. Porter and Miller elaborate upon the industry’s attractiveness and alterations of the products, as they become information intensive. However, as information technology progresses, so will the need and risk to security of a firm’s data.

Two Object Oriented Methodologies Booch And Rambaugh Information Technology Essay

Two Object Oriented Methodologies Booch And Rambaugh Information Technology Essay In this paper Object-oriented System development methodologies i-e Booch, Rambaugh, are reviewed and compared with each other with a focus on their development processes. We have developed a framework based on a set of criteria to compare the two methods. The aim of this comparison is to better understand the core philosophies and processes of each method, and internal activities that each method provides. The aim of this descriptions and comparisons are not to criticize the philosophies of theses methodologies, but to give a description of the two methodologies that will facilitate the readers to better understand each methodology, and to what extent the two methodologies are object oriented. And also this comparison provides an ease in selecting and evaluating each methodologys process. (doc1)The software engineering field has been evolving over the past thirty years, but it has never completely solved the software crisis. Software development methodologies, as an essential element of the discipline of software engineering, have also evolved from the shallow and informal methodologies of the late 1960s to the object-oriented methodologies of the 1990s and the new millennium (doc1). There is a rapid development in the object oriented paradigm during the past years and the important reasons for such rapidness are that the real world applications are modeled in a better way as well as the object oriented paradigm enables the reusability of different artifacts during the development of a software system. Object oriented system development approach facilitates the re-use of software components. A system developed with Object Oriented Methodology (OOM) on component basis can re-use the existing components effectively, and as well as its components can be shared by some other systems too. One can achieve higher productivity, better quality and low maintenance cost by adopting the OOM. Since, the object-oriented methodologies (OOM) are still growing and continue to evolve, and there are a number of popular OOMs circulating around, but none of them is widely accepted. The software community is yet not agreed upon several fundamental issues. (1) A methodology is a systematic collection of techniques guidelines for how to build, buy, maintain and/or enhance software products. A methodology provides a basis for communication, a toolkit of techniques and a basis for repeatable, reliable software engineering. The term, method, refers to an approach to activities generally adhering to common principles [14]. Object-oriented software development methodologies, starts from the appearance of hybrid methodologies, then move to seminal methodologies, and the development of integrated (third-generation/heavyweight) methodologies and their agile (lightweight) counterparts. The following are the categories of Object oriented methodologies [15]: Seminal: Shlaer-Mellor, Coad-Yourdon, RDD, Booch, OMT, OSA, OOSE, BON,Hodge-Mock, Syntropy, Fusion; Integrated: OPM, Catalysis, OPEN, RUP/USDP, EUP, FOOM; Agile: DSDM, Scrum, XP, ASD, dX, Crystal, FDD; Although the promises, that the object-oriented software development provides, are based on solid grounds but still there is a confusion among the organization on when and how to invest in this new technology and also whether to invest or not. One of the reason for such confusion is that a great number of methodologies have been evolved during the last years. The other reason for confusion is closely related to the attractiveness of object-oriented software: Many vendors sticks the label object-oriented to their products without delivering important features as King (1989, p. 24) states: If I were trying to sell (my cat) I would argue that he is object-oriented. Research Problem The research question we are going to answer is: To what extent the two Object Oriented Methodologies: Booch and Rambaugh methodologies are Object Oriented and to what extent the methodologies help the software development organizations?. The selection cretaria for the the above two OOM is mentioned in the section 1.4.2. Since the object oriented paradigm evolved in different areas of the software development simultaneously, therefore fundamental concepts were different in different methodologies and were not completely standardized. Each OOM developed in a particular software domain such as real time systems and Information systems, although some cross-over exists in some concepts among the methodologies. Therefore, some methodologies are best in the development of applications that belong to the domain for which the methodology is evolved, while other can be used more generally. Even though OOM that evolved in the same domain may differ enough in different concepts such as process and notation and as a result can effect the software engineering goals. Motivation In the recent years, an overwhelming popularity of object oriented analysis and design has been witnessed. This phenomenon is evidenced by the number of papers and articles that are published in various conference proceedings, journals, books, and other forms. But There are still a large part of the business world that uses traditional software development approach for applications development. And on the technology side, there is an extensive development in the area of Object-Oriented technologies that promises better quality and productivity through reusability, and also encourages team work. The following observation is made in a survey [] about the organizations that uses OOM, performed by Sumit: A recent survey of IS managers revealed that 39% of organizations have adopted OO technology in some form. Nonetheless, OO development methodologies are used in only 5% of IS projects are developed in OO methodologies (Glass, 1999). For a specific application the first task is to decide which methodology is most appropriate for its development. Sometimes we may have to adapt different methodologies. Therefore an organization, that wants to switch to object oriented technology, faces one important question: which OOM is appropriate and should be chosen? A systematic comparison of available OOMs can answer such a question in a better way before selecting one of them. There are number of papers and articles that compare different aspects of the OOMs such as the reusability, documentation and others. So there is a need for the comparison which considers their system development core philosophy including all the concepts that methodologies provide in their development process. Unfortunately, the comparison of these methodologies is complicated because each OOM has its own set of definitions of the techniques, concepts, notations and are composed of informal descriptions, therefore the comparison of the methodologies depends largely on the interpretations and perceptions of the person who performs the comparison[10]. Such a comparison facilitate the organization that are developing software with traditional approach and now these organizations want to switch from the traditional software development approach to object oriented approach.. We also want to improve the understanding of these methodologies through this comparison, and to provide an ease in selecting, and evaluating the methodologies. The other purpose is to provide knowledge to the individuals that are interested to get the knowledge about object-oriented concepts, to what extent the two methods are object oriented, and how they relate to one another. Such interest in some cases is academic (e.g., students). Similarly individuals in companies or organizations want to evaluate and select a methodology to be used in software development process. We believe that sometime these groups are given short time and resources to make this decision, therefore comparisons like this will provide a shortcut means of selection. Research Methodology and comparison issues First we will review the existing software development methodologies (seminal methodology) that are object-oriented. We will study their system development processes to get a knowledge base about the object oriented technology. The purpose of this study is to understand their system development processes and internal activities involved in these development processes. Then we will review the two methods using a process-centered template, where we will summarize the two methodologies, and the activities and techniques discuss in the two methodologies will be highlighted. In the second step we will evaluate and compare Booch and Rumbaugh Object Oriented. We will use books, journals, proceedings, and internet sources as the data sources about the object oriented methodologies and ongoing research to gain the knowledge base. This report compares the two object oriented methodologies: Booch method and Rambaugh method, by considering their system development core philosophy. A research has been done in Hewlett Packard Laboratories by Arnold and his colleagues [1], in which several comparing criteria are defined in the form of questions for comparing Object oriented Methodologies. These comparing criteria are based on the concepts, notations, process, and pragmatics of the OOM methodology. Influenced by the above research, this report presents a framework to compare the two selected methodologies using the same set of criteria form the above research. The framework uses these set of comparing criteria for comparing the concepts, notations, process, and pragmatics of the two selected methodology which are defined in the section 1.5.1 under the heading of comparison variables. Using such framework helps us to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the two methods during the comparison process. Based on this framework, the two methods are extensively compared. The results are presented in a set of tables. Since the results are in tabular form so the similarities and differences as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the two methods can easily be seen. Comparison Variables As mentioned above, this report uses four main categories of the two methodologies in the comparison which are defined as follows: Concepts: Concepts are related to the conceptual underpinnings of the methodology that makes it object-oriented, and explians how the concepts such as object, class, state, inheritance, aggregation, and information hiding are defined and dealt by the methodology? Process: The methodology describes what steps to be taken and in what order to accomplish certain task in develoment process. How well the methodology specifies the process varies largly from methodology to methodology. Notation: The methodology describes tecniques (textual, and /or graphical) to capture and represent information within the development process. Some methodologies describe graphical techniques only, while others specify the form and content of whole documents. Pragmatics: The pragmatic criteria concentrate on nontechnical features. Pragmatics covers issues like needed resources, language suitability, learning of the CASE tools, required expertise, and domain applicability.(8) Comparison variables are listed in Table 1 under each category. The selection criterion for these variables is objectiveness. The aim of this report is to do the objective comparison of methodologies. That is, hard facts are produced by these variables about a methodology showing that a methodology either supports or does not support these variables. This selection criterion has one limitation. That is, no fine grained information regarding a variable is provided in this report for the comparison. Typically, the degree to which a methodology supports a variable is not answered in this comparison. In order to alleviate this shortfall for some variables, the report distinguishes explicit methodology support from implicit methodology support in the comparison and provide fine grained information if appropriate. The definitions of these variables in Table I are delayed until Section 3 when the selected OOADMs are compared. Table 1: Comparison variables Category Variables Concepts Class/Object, Abstract Classes, Meta-Classes, Encapsulation, Inheritance, Association, Aggregation, Methods/Messages, Type of Communications between objects and classes, Concurrency Process Development Process Deliverables, Development Context, Aspects of the Development Life-Cycle, Partitioning Mechanism, The Life-Cycle of the Methodologies Notations Static Concepts, Dynamic Concepts, Explicit Rules for Notations Symbols Pragmatics System Size, Programming Languages Support Selection of OOMs As mentioned above that this report compare the following two OOM for comparison. Object-Oriented Modeling and Techniques by J. Rumbaugh, et al. [Rumbaugh 91] Object-Oriented Analysis and Design by G. Booch [Booch 94] The selection of OOMs is based on three criteria. First the Object Oriented Methodologies (OOM) must be published in text book form so that adequate information is available for our comparison; which narrowed down our selection to those OOMs that are available in the text book form. Second the OOMs should be well-known and must be accepted by the software development community as real object-oriented methodologies. Third the methodologies must be supportred by CASE tools. The two OOM, selected in this report for camparison, fulfill and satisfy the three criteria [1, 10]. Both Booch, and Rumbaugh, which are the most widely used OOM, have evolved either from the real time domain or information processing domain and also are used in general. The two methodologies has gained significant attention so far in the software development community and are well documented at the same time. These criteria might exclude some well-known OOMs or recent developments in the OOM, but sufficiency, maturity and general acceptance of methodologies are the primary requirements for software development practice. Literature review Limitation This paper evaluates the aforementioned methods by scoring them against a set of criteria. It is not the goal of the paper to answer the question which one is the best? But rather to show the differences between methods and to allow conclusions be drawn as to their applicability. Remaining of report is divided into four sections. Section 2 provides a brief introduction of the two methodologies. Section 3 contains the comparison of the two methodologies. Section 4 presents the conclusion for the comparison of the two OOMs. Finally, section 5 contains the references to the literature used for this research. Brief introduction Of the Booch And Rambaugh (OMT) Methods Booch (1991, 1994) Booch introduced object oriented methodology in his book published in 1991. He was the first one to give the idea of the object-oriented approach in software development process, which he called system design [2][3]. He was popular at that for his landmark paper [Booch 1986] and for the work on Ada program design. He then introduced the analysis methodology to his design and extended his design model as a repeating process which he called The Micro Process) within a development process which is referred as The Macro Process. The macro process is shown in the figure 1 below as prescribed by Booch which is a self-iterative process Figure 1- The Macro Process -Booch [1994] These two processes are discussed in the next sections. The Macro Process The macro process consists of the following steps [2] [3] [4]. 1. Establish core requirements for software (conceptualization). 2. Develop a model of the systems desired behavior (analysis). 3. Create architecture for the implementation (design). 4. Evolve the implementation through successive refinements (evolution). 5. Post-delivery evolution management (maintenance). The Micro Process The micro process consists of the following activities as shown in figure 2 below [2] [3] [4]: The classes and objects are identified at a given abstraction level. Figure 2-The Micro Process Booch [1994] 2. Previously identified classes and objects meanings are established by defining the Semantics for every class and object, as well as the behavior of the system and its components are determined. 3. The interface of classes and objects as well as their implementation are specified. Decisions about the representation of the classes and objects are made in design model. Rambaugh OMT (1991) Rumbaugh introduced Object Modeling Technique (OMT) in 1991.OMT consists of following three major models and then it defines a method for integrating them [11] [12]. 1. The Object Model 2. The Dynamic Model 3. The Functional Model The object model In this model, Objects static structure and relationships among these objects are determined within a system. The following are the main concepts used in this model: object class operation attribute association aggregation Inheritance Dynamic model This model gives a description about the dynamics of the objects and their changes in states. This model shows the essential characteristics that change over time in a system by observing the objects behavior over time, and by exploring control and events flow among the objects. The control aspects of a system are specified and implemented in this model. The following are the main concepts in this model: state sub/super state event activity action Functional model This model shows information about the data flow within a system and the outside world. The following are then main concepts of this model: process data flow data store actor (source/sink) control flow OMT consists of five phases. 1. Analysis 2. System Design 3. Object Design 4. Implementation (coding) 5. Testing OMT processes considers the primary features in the first three phases of development (i-e Analysis, System Design and Object Design) and are explained in following sections. The following figure 3 shows these processes. Figure 3.-The OMT process- Derr [1995]. 1. Analysis this phase goal is to build a comprehensible and correct model according to the real world situation. The initial problem statement is developed from the requirements of the users and information that are provided by developers and managers. The analysis phase produces the following deliverables [11] [12]: Problem Statement Object Model, which consists of Object Model Diagram and data dictionary Dynamic Model, which consists of State Diagrams and Global Event Flow Diagram Functional Model, which consists of Data Flow Diagram and constraints 2. System design on the bases of architectural design of the system and problem domain, the system is partitioned into subsystems. The following are the system design phase deliverables: System Design Document: consists of architectural design of the system and high-level strategic decisions for implementing data stores in the form of data structures, files, and databases. 3. Object design based on the analysis model, the goal of this phase to provide Implementation details that include the domain infrastructure classes along with the internal objects needed for implementation. The following are the object design phase deliverables: Detailed Object Model Detailed Dynamic Model Detailed Functional Model 4. Implementation in this phase the system that is designed so far is translated into programming language code and hardware. 5. Test The entire System that is developed is verified in this phase. Testing includes system level and scenario based tests. Comparison Of Booch and Rambaugh methods The framework used in this paper is considering the following major areas of each methodology for comparison: Concepts Process Notations Pragmatics 3.1 Concepts A method to be consider as object oriented, it should support concepts that are related to the object oriented methologies. This comparison provides help in evaluating the method to the extent it is is object oriented. Therefore , in this paper we are comparing object oriented concepts of the two methodologies, Booch and Rambaugh, in the following categories. Concepts, such as Class, Object, etc. The relationships such as Inheritance and Aggregation Types of communications between objects and classes. Concurrency mechanisms Object is the fundamental concept of every object-oriented method, that must be supported by the method. An object encapsulates its internal state (or attributes) and provides a set of operations (methods/messeges) as an interface for manipulating the state. Whereas a class is a template which describes the attributes and interface of a set of objects. Object instances are produced by defining class variables.[5] Table 1 lists comparison of the object oreinted concepts that both methodology provides. A Y in the box for each concept represents that an artifact is provided by the coresponding methodology. Table 1. Object Oriented concepts Method Rumbaugh Booch classes/objects Y Y abstract classes Y Y meta-classes Y Y Encapsulation Y Y single inheritance Y Y multiple inheritance Y Y Aggregation Y Y Association Y Y methods/messages Y Y Total 9 9 Real world is concurrent, so object oriented methods often uses concurrent objects in the analysis phase to model it. Objects remain in passive mode, until an operation is invoked by another object to bring them in active mode. If there are more than one thread of control associated with active object, then it is called internally concurrent object. Therefore object oriented methods should support ways to access the shared data in concurrent systems.[5] Table 2. Concurrency Method Passive Active internally concurrent Rumbaugh Y Y Y Booch Y Y Communiication provides information flow and synchronization between objects that are involved in the communication. In Synchronous communication the sender object send a messege to the reciever object and suspend execution until it receives an aknowlegment message from the reciever, whereas in asynchronous communication the sender does not wait for the aknowlegment and continues its execution. Sequential systems uses procedural call whereas concurrent object systems uses remote procedure Call for communication. Table 3. Communication Method Synchronous Asynchronous Procedural Remote procedure Rumbaugh Y Y Y Booch Y Y Y Process 3.2.1. Deliverables that are produced during the Development Process: A number of different types of deliverables are generated during the development process of a system. These include a number of specifications likely requirements, analysis, design, subsystem, and test cases. Particularly, in object-oriented development process, object and classes specifications are very important. Following criteria is used to find out the deliverables that each methodology generates during the development process: 0 shows no deliverable is generated. 1 shows deliverable is generated, but details are not provided. 2 shows deliverable is generated and also well defined. 3 shows deliverable is generated, a definition is provided, and an example is given. 4 shows deliverable is generated, a definition is provided, and an example is given, and a definition for the process is provided. 5 shows deliverable is generated, a definition is supplied, an example is given, a definition for the process is provided, and heuristics are provided. The following table 4 represents the results of this evaluation: Table 4: Development process deliverables Method Rumbaugh Booch Requirement Specification 2 1 Design Specification 2 2 Test Cases 0 0 Object/Class Specification 5 1 Subsystem Specification 0 1 Totals 9 5 3.2.2. Development Contexts A set of constraints occur during the development process which are established by development context. The following criteria are used to evaluate that whether each methodology explicitly discusses the constraints that are established by the development context, or not within the method. A Y in the With Prototyping column shows that prototyping is discussed explicitly in the methodology. A Y in the As Prototyping indicates that prototypes iteratively deliver the system and methodology produces prototypes into production. A Y in the With Reuse shows that the methodology explicitly incorporate the reuse products into the method The For Reuse indicates whether the methodology delivers reusable products for other processes or not. Table 5: Development Context Method Rumbaugh Booch With Prototype Y As Prototype With Reuse Y Y For Reuse Partial Y Aspects of the Development Life-Cycle The whole development life cycle of a methodology gives us a suggestion about the completeness and consistency of the methodology. If a methodology covers all aspects of the development lifecycle during the development process then it ensures the completeness and the consistency of the methodology and it is useful to the organization as a complete and consistent methodology. Therefore, complete life cycle coverage is very important to a life cycle with a limited coverage. Following table 6 values shows these aspects: 0 shows this feature is not covered. 1 shows this feature is covered, but with no details. 2 show this feature is covered with definition. 3 shows this feature is covered, a definition is given with an example (at least one). 4 shows this feature is covered, a definition is given with an example (at least one) and with defined process. 5 shows this feature is covered, a definition is given with an example (at least one) and with defined process, and heuristics are provided. Table 6: Development process life cycle coverage Method Rumbaugh Booch Domain Analysis 0 4 Requirement Analysis 5 2 Enterprise Modeling 0 0 Design 5 5 Implement 3 4 Test 2 0 Total 15 15 In software engineering Extensibility of the system design is a systematic measure of the ability to last or continue. A level of efforts is required to extend a system in range or scope. Table 7: Extensibility Method Completeness Consistency Extensibility Rumbaugh Y Y Y Booch N N N Table 8: Process properties Method Well-defined steps(process) Pure or hybrid Traceable across lifecycle Rumbaugh Y H Y Booch Partial P Partitioning Mechanism When system size increases, then at a particular time, the visibility of certain information about the objects of interest is very crucial and to limit this visibility a partitioning mechanism is required. Each methodology was studied carefully to seek such mechanisms it provides. So the information in the table below was the outcome. Table 9: Partition mechanism Method Partitioning Mechanism Rumbaugh Subsystems Booch Subsystems The Life-Cycle of the Methodologies The development life-cycle of each methodology was carefully reviewed so as to determine that whether the methodology follows a sequential (i-e Waterfall), iterative or recursive strategy because it is the crucial requirement for project planning. Otherwise it will yield unexpected results with high risk and would lead to total failure. The following table 10 shows that which methodology follows what strategy. Table 10: life cycle property Method Recursive Iterative Sequential Rumbaugh Y Booch Y 3.3 Notations 3.3.1. Static Concepts Each methodology was reviewed to determine that how each methodology represents the following concepts: Aggregation: what are the components an object is a composed of. Communication: How the classes or objects communicate with each other(i-e by sending message to one another) Specialization: An object is represented as a generalization, or specialization, of another class or object? Module Interfaces: The physical implementations of objects Qualifications for Reuse: How much each methodology encourages the reuse of different components of development process. These concepts within each methodology indicates that how the models are used. The table 11 below shows the notations for these concepts. Table 11: Static Concepts Method Rumbaugh Booch Aggregation Object Model Class Diagram Specialization Object Model Class Diagram Communication Scenario Class Diagram Module Interfaces Module Qualifications f

Wolves Essay -- essays research papers

Wolves The wolf was once a much slandered animal. In the western world, people feared and hated wolves, and this legacy is reflected in stories such as Little Red Riding Hood and The Boy Who Cried Wolf. In these popular children's tales the wolf is made out to be a prowler and a killer of livestock and people. There is some basis for The Boy Who Cried Wolf, for wolves have killed cattle and sheep. But what of Little Red Riding Hood? There are no records of wolves killing humans in Canada or the United States. Yet, when wolves were spotted near rural communities, fear used to grip the populace, but over time this has become less prevalent. Today, many people know that scientists studying wolves have lived very close to dens where there were pups without being attacked. They have even taken pups from a den without being injured. The parents have usually run away, returning later to take their young to a more private den or to a rendezvous site (a place where the pack meets). In areas where wolves are hunted or trapped they fear people and are very wary. However, in remote places, such as in the Canadian Arctic, they show little fear and will often allow people to live near them. Two hundred years ago, Canis lupus, also known as gray wolves, were more widely distributed than any other mammal of historic times. They lived in large areas of North America, Europe, and Asia; the only places they could not occupy were deserts, tropical rain forests, and peaks of the highest mountain ranges. Wolves still live in large areas of the northern hemisphere; however, their primitive range has been greatly reduced due to changes in the landscape and people's efforts to exterminate them. In North America, wolves have been exterminated in the Atlantic provinces, Mexico, the United States (except Minnesota, Alaska, and some of the western states), and the heavily populated areas of southern Canada. They are still common in lightly settled portions of Canada from Labrador to British Columbia and in the Yukon and Northwest Territories. The red wolf was once common in the southeastern United States. It has been eliminated in the wild. However, through a captive breeding program, the species is being reintroduced into its former range. It is virtually impossible to describe the typical appearance of wolves. Wolves of many large arctic islands and Greenland usually appear sn... ...ibou numbers decline. Wolves have already been exterminated in many places. However, there may be less danger of such excesses in the future, as wolf control is increasingly based on biology rather than emotion. There is now a greater awareness among people that the killing by wolves of deer and other prey species, which we may want for ourselves, is not a sufficient reason for the extermination of wolves. Sometimes populations of game animals are critically low, so on biological grounds wolf control could be justified; however, control programs are always opposed by ever-increasing urban populations. Proposed wolf culls have become major political issues in many areas in North America. When controls are carried out, they need to be done to meet certain criteria, which are based on sound scientific information and stewardship of wildlife populations. In the wilderness scheme of things wolves play an important role. And from a human point of view, the great interest and value of having this intelligent animal as part of our wilderness heritage should be sufficient justification for allowing it to survive in a wide variety of wilderness and semi-wilderness areas all over the world.

Commerce Study Notes Year 9

Commerce Law and Society Laws: * A rule that governs the way you live, with minimal standards. * Protects people and keeps peace. * Have freedoms, resolve disputes, protection. Anarchy: Without order. Mediation: a third person that ultimately decides, outside of court * * Registered person. * Two parties and mediator. * A compromise is made. * Mediations cheaper and voluntary. Matrimonial: property of marriage, everything is shared * * Matrimonial assets. * Court considers contributions of parties. * Child is child of marriage Government in Australia Governments make laws to control us. They set up systems to enforce laws. * Governments set up courts to decide upon breaches of laws. Jury decides whether the person is guilty or not, the judge decides the punishment Democracy: Demo=People, Cracy=State * People elected by the people under a free voting system. All have equal rights. * Provides laws and order, controls economic problems, and protects people / environment. Types of Govern ments * Communism: No private ownership. Government owns everything and provides the needs/ wants of the people. E. G. China, North Korea. Monarchy: The Monarch (king, queen, emperor, empress, sultan) E. G. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia. * Constitutional Monarchy: Powers of the monarch reduced by laws. Governor General represents the Monarch. E. G. Australia operates as a democracy. * Anarchy: Government has broken down. No laws or authority. * Socialism: Ownership of all production (farms and factories) controlled by the people. Government puts responsibility on people. E. G. Sweden * Federation: Involves Federal, State and local governments. Federal Government Issues * Customs * Currency * Defence Immigration/ emigration. * Aboriginal affairs. * Foreign affairs * Social security (makes people feel more secure) * Marriage/ divorce. The Australian Federal government is based on a bicameral system. * * Upper house – Senate76 people * Lower house – house of Reps 150 people State Government * * Each state divided into electorates * 93 electorates in NSW for lower house (legislative assembly- green room). * 43 electorates for upper house. * Voters elect a representative. * Each electorate contains 40,000 to 50,000 people.Jurisdiction * Each state in USA and Aus have legal jurisdiction. (authority in law) * Unity and centrality- POWER * Freedom of speech, same rights (equality), justice. 3 Areas of Power Legislation – parliamentary law – voting politician Executive – carries out law – police Judiciary – courts and judges – statue and case law Judiciary 1st level: Local Court (judge and magistrate) minor matters e. g. shop lifting 2nd District Court (judge)fairly serious matters e. g. armed robbery 3rd level: Supreme Court (Judge/ justices) serious criminal matters e. g. ife in-jailment 4th High Court (Judge) looks at paperwork, no evidence Federal Courts – deal with federal law * Federal magistrates court of Aus tralia * Federal court of Australia e. g. Family Courts Facts * Australian constitution sets out Federal powers. * Federal law prevails over state law. * Trade practices act: Federal * Bankruptcy Hierarchy of Courts in Australia – state courts * High court of Australia (up to 7 judges) * Federal court * Supreme court of appeal * Supreme court * District court * Local court Court Administration 1. Registry: Handles the paperwork of the court.Charges fees. 2. Registrar: Boss of the registry. What impact do fees have on justice? Fees restrict people’s access to the courts causing injustice and can be seen as discrimination. It also reduces the demand on the court system. It also deters frivolous or silly cases. Contracts * A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between parties, outlining the obligations. * Oral/ verbal contract: mouth (spoken). * Signed contract: written (signed by parties). * Most contracts are oral but are signed when involving large sums of mone y. Elements of a contract . Offer: A proposal where the person making an offer must clearly communicate. 2. Acceptance: Occurs when the person making an offer agrees to the proposal. 3. Consideration: Required to form a valid contract. Requires each party to give up something of value. * Implied term: nothing in writing but a code of conduct is established. Cases * PS of Great Britain v BBC Ltd (1953): Customers offer can be refused. (the check out accepts offers) * C v CSB Co. (1893): Misleading advertising can be a contract. (offer at large) * Chappel & Co. V Nestle Co.Ltd (1960): Even with no value something can be passed from one party to another forming a contract. (caveat emptor – buyer beware) The difference between Private law and Public law Private law (civil): laws that regulate people’s behaviour with other individuals. (non-criminal matters e. g. suing for civil wrongs) Public law (criminal): People’s behaviour within society. (criminal law, protects people from other people – e. g. robbery, homicide , drug offences) Courts * Juries are normally involved in serious matters. * For minor matters you only have a local court magistrate.The adversail system: two sides go against each other in an argument or a fight to argue their case. List the main courtroom officials * The judge (your worship) * The judge assistant * The lawyers * The transcript reporter * The jury (6-12 in criminal case) * The barrister * The magistrate (your honour) Robbery: taking property that belongs to someone else using threats/ violence. Civil law Civil law deals with no criminal matters. It allows an individual to sue other people Negligence Trespassing Defamation Nuisance Where a civil law is successfully proven in court, the wronged party will seek damages.The award of legal costs normally goes to the successful party that is either the plaintiff or defendant (but can be refused as these costs are discretionary – up to judge) Civil Law Tes t To prove their test they must win â€Å"the balance of probability† more likely/ no certainty of truth. Criminal Law Test â€Å"Beyond a reasonable doubt† approx. Equal to certainty (protects people from others who do the wrong thing). â€Å"Ignorance of the law is no excuse†. In criminal law you have a Prosecutor: In local courts usually police whereas in the higher courts prosecute is known as the Crown prosecutor. the Crown (R= Regina which means loyalty) v.Defendant In criminal matters the injured party is the State or the Crown. The offence is not against the person that has suffered at the hands of the alleged perpetrator but rather against the State (Crown). In criminal matters the victim cannot decide to punish the offender. This is for the Crown to make. Courtroom acts and definitions Indictable offences: Serious crimes that are determined or tried by a judge or jury. Summary offences: Less serious crimes which are relatively quickly dealt with by a m agistrate in a local court. Manresa: To have a guilty mind. If you are insane you cannot have mensrea.Quasi: Semi criminal. In between civil and criminal. Injunction: Order of the court to stop doing something. E. g. Stop playing loud music. Contempt of Court: Disregarding or breathing an injunction or court order. Statute Law: Law made by parliament. Restitution: paying for damage caused by contempt of court Case/ common law: Law made by judges. How laws are made Statute Law: made by parliament through the passing of a bill or a referendum. Common/ case law: Law is made by the courts of previous cases. 2 houses of parliament (legislative) 1st Lower house (house of reps) 2nd Upper house (senate)If a bill is continuously rejected than a double dissolution can be called meaning the public go to the polls to re-elect senators and representatives in the lower house. A courts primary role is to interpret and apply the laws of the parliament. Common law: A judge can alter common law as it has arisen through the judges in England and then Australia. Alters law when necessary to allow justice. What binds the Common Law Precedent in law means those principles that have been decided in the past that a court can rely on today. Higher courts make a precedent. How a bill becomes law The cabinet draft bills with senior ministers. cabinet is the prime minister) Bill is given to each member of parliament, then it gets read out loud for debate and voted in House of Reps. If majority in favour bill is passed to senate. If passed in senate it goes to executive (governor general) for Royal assent (Is now an ACT of Parliament). If senate rejects bill they send it back as is or with amendments. If rejected for a second time a double dissolution can be called. Common law Develops over time case by case. Each case represents a precedent. Precedent A strong example, defies what has happened before through principles of law. Judges RoleInterpret statute, common law, delegated legislati on (ministerial law), and to enforce laws. Equality: Enforcement of the law should be fair and should result in equal punishments or penalties. A judge cannot lean on the scale (meant to be impartial). Our system is adversarial system (each party represented by a lawyer). Justice: All people are equal before the law. Symbols of justice The blindfold: Justice is impartial (not influenced by wealth, race, sex, ect†¦ ). The scales: Represent the legal system (weighing up both sides of argument). The sword: The punishment to be imposed on any guilty party.

An Analysis of the Dynamic Customs Union Theory Essay

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The idea of a common market came to life with the economic integration of the European nations after the Second World War. The question thereafter lies whether the efficacy of this decision is quite effective or is working for the benefit of their common market.   In addition, the application of the ideas herein will be discussed with dissimilar analyses of the factors that discuss the economic implications of the regional integration. X-Efficiency Analysis There are a number of unlike potential efficiency effects of consolidation that may be able to be applied to either domestic or international M&As. In the current European Stock Market for example, we review the existing empirical research on a number of these types of efficiency (De Young, 2000). We include the scale and scope efficiency effects of M&As that increase the size and the count of different types of services offered by consolidated institutions. We also include several X-efficiency effects, or changes that move the consolidating institutions closer to or further from their optimal points on the best-practice efficient frontier. Specifically, we consider the X-efficiency effects of geographic diversification and managing from a distance, and the X-efficiency consequences of the M&A process itself (De Young, 2000). For all of these types of efficiency, we consider both cost and revenue efficiency effects, and often include research on profit efficiency, which incorporates both cost and revenue efficiency. For some of the types of efficiency, a change in the risks of consolidating institutions is also a consideration, because the risk of the consolidated institution affects its costs of funds and its ability to raise revenues. The research is drawn from many countries, including most of the European countries, although most of the studies use U.S. data. ‘Dynamic effects’ is the term used in a variety of ways by different authors to cover anything beyond standard comparative statics or any effect that has to do with economies of scale and any effect that tackles technical change (De Young, 2000). Static effects universally estimated at about 1%. With static effects only those resources who move activity gain (if they get re-employed). And gain is equal to the difference between uncompetitive (protected) activity and the new activity (assumed to have Comparative Advantage). Big effects are likely to come from scale economies and especially shift in cost curves. Cost reduction affects all existing production as well. Firms need regulatory certainty that they will get market access. Hence, incurs a lower risk premium on investment – in other words, growth effects Terms of Trade Effects Other than the import regulations, industrial organizations also differentiate the consequence of import raise effects on the stock markets in the European Union. On the other hand, the course of the effect of import raise on focus is unclear. A study points out that the effect of imports on producer concentration is positive. Probable reasons of the raise in producer concentration ratio are the absence of inefficient firms as a result of import liberalization. The other possible reason is the increase in mergers of domestic firms as a result of import threats. In addition, if imports are close substitutes for domestic production, sectors that have high import share may be expected to be characterized by a high degree of defensive concentration. Alternatively, it is also likely that imports would reduce concentration if producers were induced to improve efficiency and in turn increase the number of efficient firms. In the same way, the result of the increase in exports on producer concentration is also unclear (Nagy, 2005). There is a positive relationship between export increases and concentration if an increase in exports reduces average cost because of scale economies from increased market size, and as a result producers engaged in exporting activities should be able to increase their market share. Because a larger market size resulting from export opportunities can support more producers, a negative relationship is more likely if the economies of scale in production or distribution are not that important. Paralleling these theoretical developments in the industrial organization and international trade theory, there are a number of empirical studies examining the effects of trade liberalization on the price-cost margins. The result of the studies point out that an import increase has a negative impact on the price cost mark-ups of highly concentrated industries. The EU is an exception to these studies because it suggests that there is no systematic evidence of the import discipline hypothesis for the EU economy (Nagy, 2005). Regarding the pro-competitive effect of economic integration, a study of Bottaso confirms the view that economic integration reduces the price cost mark-ups for Italy and Spain. The idea of a free custom union around Europe emerged in 1950 as Customs Unions and Free trade areas have been seen as a step towards global free trade. This was previously supported by a provision on GATT 1947 Article I that required non discriminatory â€Å"MFN† trade. However, Art. XXIV allowed CUs/FTAs covering â€Å"substantially all† trade and if overall degree of protection was no higher although the provision was not well defined as it created a further dilemma particularly on the implementation stage of the process. Krugman argued that dividing the world into 3 blocs was worst possible outcome through impact on those excluded but later said benefits of deeper integration positive when â€Å"Natural† Blocs form. Kemp and Wan 1976 showed that any customs union could be welfare enhancing if the right tariff taxes and subsidies were adopted.   But high tariff CUs can have adverse terms of trade effects on an EU member’s partners and on trade partners. â€Å"Deep integration† can credibly ensure trade barriers not replaced by â€Å"domestic† measures:   trade barriers now often â€Å"non-border measures† and change business expectations. Economies of Scale Analysis Recent academic studies regarding international trade gives us specific gains from trade derived from theories both from classical and neo-classical economic approaches. Among what these theories suggests is the pro-competitive effects of trade liberalization with the emphasis on the expansion of the market size in terms relative to the change in the number of firms that are present. Consequently, the pro-competitive effects advocate that trade differentiates the intensity of competition in the market; including the company’s price cost mark-ups, their relative scale and production output. New several theoretical readings regarding international trade have had several implications upon the European Union economic customs integration. The purpose and significance of the welfare services involved in the new theory applied to the regional economic integration has widened the range of possible benefits from the European Union countries’ integration further than that put forward by the standard customs union theory patterned on a perfect competition structure and constant returns to scale (Akkoyunlu-Wigley, 2005). Accordingly, one of vital issue is that customs union theory concentrates more on the outcome of the economic integration rather than the market structure efficiency and the productivity of firms. For that reason customs union theory is not anymore viewed as one theory subsequent to the classical Vinerian ideas of the conception of trade and trade diversions. It is often debated that the pro-competitive aspect of trade liberalization is suitable under both the theory of monopolistic competition and the oligopolistic market structures. Obtained on the assumption of monopolistic competition, it is illustrated that trade liberalization leads to an increase in firms scale and decrease in average cost and prices by increasing the elasticity of demand. Likewise, under the theory of oligopolistic interaction between the European Union member countries, trade liberalization also creates a decrease in price cost mark-ups and produces an increase in the overall firm scale by heavily moving the market power of the firm in home markets (Akkoyunlu-Wigley, 2005). With respect to the pro competitive implication in the case of customs union, the significance of the pro-competitive effect as one of the outcomes of customs union and propose that regional ones, such as the European Union oppose global unions that will then intensify the pro-competitive result. Specifically, due to the production shifting effect, the exact figure of firms in a country that would boost the integrated area involved which in turn would reduce the home market shares of companies in the European Union. Alternatively, new empirical studies also show developed industrial organization theories that test the implications of trading on the current market structure as well as profitability. The â€Å"import discipline hypothesis† within the framework of the SCP paradigm is being tested as far as import liberalization is concerned. Then again, industrial organization theory also looks onto the implications of imports on price-cost margins (Akkoyunlu-Wigley, 2005). Similarly, an increase in imports of EU countries for instance as a result of trade liberalization would cause a decline in the price-cost margin by means of reduction in the market power of domestic firms or through the increase in competition. Also, since the competing imports will increase, the number of alternatives available to domestic consumers will increase and may raise the demand elasticity and therefore reduce the price-cost margins. Likewise, the other countries that have an interest in replicating what Europe had done may not necessarily run after the economic integration just so to experience the benefit it curtails. Some countries may not really have to. Instead, what governments must do to replicate the benefits without risking much of the variable discussed is through the multilateral cutting of the tariffs that the involved countries may have on certain products that either one or both of them produce. The concept of competitive advantage enters here as the devaluation that would follow suit which would create and ensure a full employment for both countries involved. Growth Effects Analysis The first systematic albeit descriptive investigation of output effects of economic integration was carried out under the heading â€Å"dynamic effects of integration†. According to Balassa these dynamic effects are rooted in internal and external economies of scale, faster technological progress as a result of economies of scale in the R&D-sector, enhanced competition, and reduced uncertainty, the creation of a more favorable environment for economic activity and lower costs of capital due to the integration of financial markets. The revival of growth theory in the mid-80s led to a more formal reconsideration of the effects of integration on growth and shed more light on the questions involved (Badinger, 2001). At the outset, a terminological clarification is in order here. The most important distinction relates to the persistence of the effects of economic integration on the growth rate: Permanent growth effects lead to a change in the steady-state growth rate, resulting in a steeper growth path of the economy. On the other hand there are temporary growth effects (or level effects), which cause only an upward shift of the growth path, while leaving its slope unchanged in the long-run, i.e. after the transition period the growth rate falls back to its steady-state level. Following the level effects can be further subdivided into static effects that lead to more output from the same amount of inputs and dynamic effects that â€Å"influence the accumulation of factors†. Also referring to the channels through which growth effects materialize the terms â€Å"integration-induced technology-led growth† and â€Å"integration-induced investment-led growth† (Badinger, 2001). Although first used in the context of level effects, this distinction equivalently applies to permanent growth effects. To analyze the consequences of integration for economic growth in a systematic way, two lines of theory have to be distinguished: neoclassical and endogenous growth theory. In neoclassical growth theory, economic integration and other institutional aspects or economic policy measures have no effect on the steady-state growth rate, which is solely determined by the exogenous rate of technological progress. As a result of diminishing returns to capital the capital stock and output per efficient worker grow only to the point where the investment ratio equals depreciation plus the rate of technological progress (for constant labor). (Badinger, 2001) The growth of capital stock and output per worker in equilibrium is then given by the constant rate of technological progress (g). Institutional changes, increases in efficiency or changes in the investment-ratio have only temporary effects on the growth rate; after a transition period it falls back to its steady-state level. Thus, neoclassical growth theory clearly rejects the hypothesis of permanent growth effects. Nevertheless, both static and dynamic level effects occur. Static effects arise from three main sources: lower trade costs, increased competition and enhanced factor mobility. This increase in efficiency leads to more output from the same amount of inputs in a first round (static effects). But this is not the end of the story. Given a constant investment-ratio, the increase in output also leads to higher investment and an increase in the capital stock, which in turn increases output in a second round (dynamic effects). Conclusion The European Union is the concern over the effects on competitiveness of the member countries when it comes to pricing behavior and market structure. The European Stock Markets indicate that the higher the volume of trade the lower the price will be and the price cost margins as well as industry market power. It is then safe to assume that the liberalization of trade would eventually cause gains in output and welfare. However, articles on trade liberalization bring out flaws regarding the effects of custom unions about the ability to raise trade volumes on the market structure and price cost margins of industries. Studying the implications of key variables involved, related indicators on the European Union member countries after the implementation of the customs union between the 1950’s and to date, it can be concluded that the volume of the internal trade within the manufacturing industry of EU member countries significantly increased on the average. Furthermore, the price cost and concentration ratios of the manufacturing industry declined on the average during the same time frame. As we examine the relationship that is causal between the increasing volumes of trade with EU countries and the decreasing cost of price margins as well as the concentration ratios of the manufacturing industry sector.   Price cost margins and concentration ratio equations will then use trade ratios with EU countries as explanatory variables in order to interpret the results obtained.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Results on estimation that are presented in this paper present the effect of pro-competitive increase in trade volumes of the EU member countries. We then estimate the price cost margin equation to illustrate an inverse relationship between the margins and import ratios. This implicates a theory that when there is a rise in import to the EU countries after the creation of a customs union would then create a competitive effect and would cause the decrease in price of cost margins within the manufacturing industry. Such an inverse relation supports the point that trade volume increases and export levels within EU countries are forcing the companies in the manufacturing industry to implement lower price cost margins (Breuss, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Generally, it can be said that the creation of a customs union and the rise in the levels of trade volume within European Union countries seemingly illustrates an increase in competitive gridlocks which will end up in falling price cost margins in certain countries. At the same time, putting an emphasis in the manufacturing industry, positive implications of trade liberalization in the aftermath of the establishment of customs unions is also supported with the results of the estimation schemes intended for the concentration ratio equation. Furthermore, a negative strong correlation can be found between the import variables and the Herfindahl concentration ratios. The concept suggests that raising outputs as well as the imports to the European Union will bring down the marginalized concentration ratios and seclude the market power in the manufacturing industry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Also according to the results of the estimation method, it would look like that there is no direct relation between the export variables used and the concentration ratios for the manufacturing industry. Furthermore, the concentration ratio equation estimate directs that unobserved time which is previously deemed insignificant and the invariant sector specific factors are as well responsible for the variations in the concentration sectors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In total, still according to the estimation results, it can be suggested that the increase in trade volumes brings about beneficial implications on the European Union economy as a whole after the custom union period through the increase in competitive pressure coming form other EU member countries as well as the one for falling mark-ups on prices of consumer goods and market power. Therefore, it would be then be concluded that implications on the welfare side of the economies involved are results of varying changes in the pricing behavior as well as the entire market structure of the European Union member countries. Bibliography:    AKKOYUNLU-WIGLEY, A. (2005) â€Å"Effects of Customs Union with European Union on the Market Structure and Pricing Behaviour of Turkish Manufacturing Industry†. Pearson Education International. BADINGER, H. (2001) Growth Effects of Economic Integration – The Case of the EU Member States(1950 – 2000). Center for European Studies. BREUSS, F. (2001) â€Å"WTO Dispute Settlement from an Economic Perspective – More Failure than Success†. Center for European Studies. DE YOUNG, R. (2000) Efficiency Barriers to the Consolidation of the European Union. Center for European Policy Studies. NAGY, M. (2005) Bank Efficiency in the Enlarged European Union. European Commission.